Mesopotamia (c. 4500 – 539 BCE)

Mesopotamia, often called the "Cradle of Civilization," flourished between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers (modern-day Iraq) around 3500 BCE. This ancient civilization pioneered writing (cuneiform), codified laws (Hammurabi’s Code), and developed advanced astronomy, mathematics, and urban planning. City-states like Ur and Babylon became hubs of trade, culture, and innovation, introducing concepts like the wheel and the 60-minute hour. Mesopotamia’s legacy—from epic literature like *Gilgamesh* to ziggurat temples—laid the foundation for future societies. Its influence on governance, technology, and culture endures as one of humanity’s most transformative contributions.