Confucianism (China) Confucianism, developed by Confucius (Kong Fuzi) in the 6th–5th century BCE, is less a religion than an ethical and social philosophy centered on harmony, filial piety, ritual propriety (li), and moral cultivation. It posits that a well-ordered society stems from virtuous individuals who fulfill relational roles—ruler-subject, parent-child, friend-friend—with sincerity and righteousness (yi). Education, self-discipline, and reverence for ancestors are key. Mencius later argued human nature is inherently good, while Xunzi believed it required correction through ritual. For over two millennia, Confucianism shaped East Asian governance, family structure, and civil service exams. Though criticized during 20th-century revolutions, its values persist in modern Chinese, Korean, Japanese, and Vietnamese cultures—emphasizing respect, duty, and collective welfare over individualism. Contemporary “New Confucianism” seeks to reconcile these ideals with democracy and human rights. At its core, Confucianism views morality not as divine command but as cultivated practice: becoming fully human through daily acts of care, learning, and reciprocity in a web of relationships that bind society together.
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