Utilitarianism (Britain, 18th–19th Century) Utilitarianism, pioneered by Jeremy Bentham and refined by John Stuart Mill in 18th- and 19th-century Britain, is a consequentialist ethical theory holding that the best action is the one that maximizes overall happiness or utility (“the greatest good for the greatest number”). Bentham proposed a “felicific calculus” to quantify pleasure and pain, while Mill distinguished higher (intellectual) and lower (sensual) pleasures, arguing it’s better to be a dissatisfied human than a satisfied pig. Utilitarianism underpins modern policy analysis, economics, and public health, promoting impartial, evidence-based decisions. Critics argue it may justify sacrificing minorities for majority benefit or overlook justice and rights. Later versions, like rule utilitarianism, address this by evaluating rules rather than individual acts. Despite challenges, its emphasis on reducing suffering and promoting well-being remains influential in effective altruism and AI ethics. Utilitarianism democratizes morality: every person’s happiness counts equally. It shifts ethics from divine command or tradition to measurable human welfare—making compassion a rational imperative in an interconnected world.
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