Pragmatism (United States, late 19th Century) Pragmatism, emerging in late 19th-century America through Charles Sanders Peirce, William James, and John Dewey, redefines truth not as correspondence to reality but as what works in practice. Ideas are tools for solving problems; their value lies in consequences and usefulness. James applied this to religion: if belief in God improves life, it’s “true” in a pragmatic sense. Dewey extended it to education and democracy, advocating experiential learning and participatory governance as ongoing experiments. Rejecting absolute truths and rigid dualisms (mind/body, fact/value), pragmatism embraces fallibilism—we may be wrong, so stay open to revision. It influenced psychology, law, education, and AI, promoting flexibility over dogma. Unlike European idealism, it’s grounded in real-world action and community inquiry. Critics say it risks relativism, but pragmatists counter that shared human needs anchor meaning. In a polarized world, pragmatism offers a middle path: test beliefs through dialogue and experience, prioritize cooperation, and let outcomes—not ideology—guide progress. It turns philosophy into a method for living better together.
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