Empiricism (Britain, 17th–18th Century) Empiricism, developed by British philosophers John Locke, George Berkeley, and David Hume in the 17th and 18th centuries, holds that all knowledge originates in sensory experience. Locke rejected innate ideas, comparing the mind at birth to a “tabula rasa” (blank slate) written on by perception. Berkeley took this further, arguing “to be is to be perceived”—denying material substance altogether. Hume questioned causality itself, noting we observe only constant conjunction, not necessary connection, thereby undermining metaphysical certainty. Empiricism shifted philosophy toward observation, experimentation, and skepticism of grand theories unsupported by evidence. It laid groundwork for modern science, psychology, and data-driven policy. While criticized for potentially leading to skepticism (if senses deceive, can we know anything?), its emphasis on evidence remains central to scientific method. Later thinkers like Quine bridged it with pragmatism. Empiricism democratized knowledge: no privileged access to truth via reason alone—everyone can observe and test. In an age of misinformation, its call to ground claims in verifiable experience is more vital than ever.
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